| Overviews |
| Title |
"Costs and Benefits
of Reducing Lead in Gasoline" |
| Author |
Joel Schwartz, Hugh Pitcher, Ronnie
Levin, Bart Ostro and Albert L. Nichols |
| Institution |
US Environmental Protection Agency |
| Pages |
387 |
| Date |
February 1985 |
| Abstract |
In conjunction with the US EPA rulemaking
to reduce the amount of lead in gasoline to 0.10 gplg, this study
assessed the overall costs and monetotrized benefits of reducing
lead. |
| Title |
"Phasing Out Lead from
Gasoline: World-Wide Experience and Policy Implications" |
| Author |
Lovei, Magda |
| Institution |
World Bank |
| Pages |
44 |
| Date |
August 1996 |
| Abstract |
This report reviews the current experience
with lead phase out and the policy implications. It highlights
the six elements of an effective phase out strategy. |
| Title |
"The Benefits of Unleaded
Petrol" |
| Author |
Mowle, Michael G. |
| Institution |
New South Wales State Pollution Control
Commission |
| Pages |
14 plus Figures and Tables |
| Date |
September 1981 |
| Abstract |
This paper thoroughly reviews the benefits
of a switch to unleaded fuel on emissions, fuel economy and maintenance.
It concludes that significant net cost savings will result from
the switch. |
| Title |
"Role of Lead Antiknocks
in Modern Gasolines" |
| Author |
Bettoney, Pahnke & |
| Institution |
Society of Automotive Engineers |
| Pages |
23 |
| Date |
1971 |
| Abstract |
The role of lead antiknocks is discussed
with particular emphasis on exhaust emissions, engine cleanliness,
valve seat recession, octane requirements and octane requirement
increase. |
| Title |
"The Elimination of
Lead From Gasoline" |
| Author |
Thomas, V.M |
| Journal |
Annual Review of Energy and the Environment |
| Volume |
20 |
| Pages |
24 |
| Date |
1995 |
| Abstract |
This paper reviews the reasons for
phasing lead out of gasoline, the then current status, the costs
and the concerns with vehicles with soft valve seats. |
| Title |
"The Advantages of
Removing Lead From Gasoline and Using Catalytic Converters to
Control Vehicle Exhaust Pollution" |
| Author |
Walsh, M.P. |
| Pages |
44 |
| Date |
October 1983 |
| Abstract |
This paper reviews the impact of unleaded
gasoline and catalytic converters on vehicle emissions. |
| Title |
"Global Opportunities
for Reducing The Use of Leaded Gasoline" |
| Author |
(IOMC), Inter-Organization Programme
For The Sound Management of Chemicals |
| Pages |
59 |
| Date |
September 1998 |
| Abstract |
This report provides a brief overview
of the health consequences of lead exposure, the importance of
leaded gasoline as a source of this exposure, and how to overcome
the potential barriers to eliminating its use. |
| How To Phase Out Lead In Gasoline |
| Title |
"Issue Paper: Phasing
Lead Out Of Gasoline – The Experience With Different Policy Approaches
in Different Countries" |
| Author |
Walsh, Michael P. |
| Institution |
United Nations Environment Program/Organization
For Economic Cooperation & Development |
| Date |
1999 |
| Abstract |
Various approaches to phasing out the
use of leaded gasoline are reviewed and conclusions drawn regarding
the respective merits of each. |
| Title |
"Harmonization of Fuels
Specifications in Latin America and the Caribbean" |
| Author |
Alconsult |
| Institution |
World Bank |
| Pages |
51 plus Annexes |
| Date |
January 1998 |
| Abstract |
Specifications of key parameters for
gasoline, diesel, LPG and light fuel oils are proposed. Issues
considered when developing the specifications include investment
requirements, effects on current vehicle fleet, current inter
regional trade, and on air quality, as well as sensitive geopolitical
issues such as national supply security and the perspective of
smaller/older refineries in some countries. |
| Energy Impacts |
| Title |
"The rational utilization
of fuels in private transport (rufit) - extrapolation to unleaded
gasoline case" |
| Author |
CONCAWE |
| Institution |
CONCAWE |
| Pages |
23 |
| Date |
August 1980 |
| Abstract |
The purpose of the RUFIT study was
to look at the gasoline engined motor vehicle and European refineries
as a single integrated system with the Research Octane Number
as the link, taking into account the range of possible restrictions
on the use of lead additives. |
| Title |
"Assessment of the
energy balances and economic consequences of the reduction and
elimination of lead in gasoline" |
| Author |
CONCAWE |
| Institution |
CONCAWE |
| Pages |
49 |
| Date |
December 1983 |
| Abstract |
This report gives details of a study
carried out at the request of the EEC Working Group: Evolution
of Regulations - Global Approach (ERGA) to predict the optimum
octane number for unleaded gasoline which will minimize total
energy consumption. |
| Title |
"A Before and After
Study of the Change to Unleaded Gasoline - Test Results from EPA
and Other Cycles" |
| Author |
Harry C. Watson, Eric E. Milkins, Steve
Lansell and Ken Challenger |
| Institution |
University of Melbourne |
| Report Number |
SAE # 900150 |
| Pages |
23 |
| Date |
February 26, 1990 |
| Abstract |
This report reviews the real world
impact of a switch to unleaded fuel on emissions and fuel consumption
under a variety of driving conditions. |
| Health Concerns With Lead |
| Title |
Lead In the Americas:
A Call for Action |
| Pages |
210 |
| Date |
1996 |
| Publisher |
Committee to Reduce Lead Exposure In
The Americas, Board of International Health Institute of Medicine,
in collaboration with The National Institute of Public Health,
Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico |
| Editor |
C. P. Howson, Mauricio Hernandez-Avila
and David P. Rall |
| Series Editor |
Christopher P. Howson; Hernandez-Avila,
Mauricio; Rall, David P. |
| Abstract |
This report summarizes a three day
conference which was held in Washington, DC during the period
from 8-10 May, 1995.Chapter 1 summarizes the findings, conclusions
and recommendations of the symposium participants for the prevention
of lead poisoning in the Americas. Chapter 2 describes the history
of public health concerns about lead poisoning and the voluntary
and regulatory steps taken to reduce human lead exposures. Chapter
3 provides summaries of the plenary sessions presentations and
Chapter 4 summarizes the findings of the six working groups. |
| Title |
"Preventing Lead Poisoning
in Young Children |
| Author |
Center for Disease Control, US |
| Institution |
US department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control |
| Pages |
105 |
| Date |
October 1991 |
| Abstract |
This is the fourth revision of the
statement on Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children by the
Centers for Disease Control. |
| Title |
Human Exposure to Lead
(Series Title: Human Exposure Assessment Series) |
| Author |
WHO |
| Pages |
216 |
| Date |
1992 |
| Publisher |
United Nations Environment Programme,
United States Environmental Protection Agency and the World Health
Organization |
| Abstract |
This text was prepared under the WHO/UNEP
Human Exposure Assessment Location (HEAL) Programme and forms
the report on the HEAL Coordinators meeting held in Bangkok, Thailand
from 16 to 20 November 1992. |
| Title |
"Risk Reduction Monograph
No. 1: Lead" |
| Author |
Development, Organization for Economic
Cooperation and |
| Institution |
Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development |
| Pages |
277 |
| Date |
1993 |
| Abstract |
The main purposes of this document
on lead risk reduction are: (1) to provide a summary of information
regarding releases of lead to the environment, the ensuing environmental
and human exposures, and the way OECD member countries and countries
with observer status perceive the risks associated with exposure
to lead; (2) to describe the actions those countries and industry
have taken, or contemplate taking, to reduce risks associated
with exposure to lead, and (3) to identify the benefits, in terms
of protection of human health and the environment, that could
result from taking such actions, to the extent that information
is available. |
| Title |
Environmental Health
Criteria 165: Inorganic Lead |
| Volume |
165 |
| Pages |
300 |
| Publisher |
United Nations Environment Programme,
International Labour Organization and the World Health Organization |
| Editor |
Safety, International Programme on
Chemical |
| Abstract |
This monograph focuses on the risks
to human health associated with exposure to lead and inorganic
lead compounds. |
| Title |
"Automotive Emissions
of Ethylene Dibromide" |
| Author |
Sigsby, Dropkin, Bradow and Lang |
| Institution |
US EPA & Northrop Services |
| Pages |
17 |
| Date |
June 1982 |
| Abstract |
Ethylene dibromide (EDB) is commonly
used as a scavenger to prevent lead deposit build up on spark
plugs. This paper presents test data from vehicles operating on
leaded gasoline with EDB. Health effects of EDB are also reviewed. |
| Gasoline As A Source of Lead Exposure |
| Title |
"Isotopic Lead Experiment:
A Dynamic Analysis of the Isotopic Lead Experiment Results" |
| Author |
Fantechi, A. Colombo and R. |
| Institution |
Commission of the European Communities,
General Directorate XII |
| Pages |
26 |
| Date |
October 1983 |
| Abstract |
This report studies by mathematical
modeling the dynamic evolution of the blood lead isotopic ratio
(206 PB/207 Pb) of three groups of subjects from Turin and from
near and far countries. Through the comparison of the experimental
evolutions with those given by the model, it aims at ascertaining
whether an analysis of all the blood lead isotopic ratio data
covering the 1975-1979 ILER period could support the percentages
of local petrol lead impacting on blood estimated in the ILE report. |
| Title |
"The Relationship Between
Gasoline Lead Usage and Blood Lead Levels in Americans: A Statistical
Analysis of the NHANES II Data" |
| Author |
ICF Incorporated, under contract to
the US EPA |
| Institution |
US EPA |
| Pages |
53 |
| Date |
December 1982 |
| Abstract |
The results presented in this report
were obtained by applying sophisticated statistical techniques
to extensive sets of data. Several regression models were fit
to the more than 10,000 observations on blood lead levels gathered
during the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES II). |
| Valve Seat Recession |
| Title |
"Effect of Low Levels
of Lead and Alternative Additives To Lead On Engines Designed
To Operate on Leaded Gasoline" |
| Author |
Allsup, Jerry R. |
| Institution |
United States Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Mobile Sources |
| Pages |
190 |
| Date |
March 1987 |
| Abstract |
This report describes testing operations
to determine the effect of using leaded gasoline, low-lead gasoline,
unleaded gasoline and gasoline with additives in engines designed
for leaded gasoline. |
| Title |
"Report to the President
and Congress on the Need for Leaded Gasoline on the Farm" |
| Author |
Agency, United States Environmental
Protection |
| Pages |
52 Plus Appendices |
| Date |
October 1988 |
| Abstract |
This report carefully reviews the need
for leaded gasoline to prevent valve seat recession in farm equipment
operating under sustained heavy loads. It also review alternative
strategies to minimize or prevent any valve damage risk. |
| Title |
Fourth Meeting of the
Task Force on the Phase-out of Lead in Gasoline - Final Report
Presenting the Results of the Car Park Study" |
| Author |
Agency, Danish Environmental Protection |
| Institution |
Danish EPA |
| Pages |
26 plus Appendix |
| Date |
January 1998 |
| Abstract |
This report focuses on the question
of whether vehicles produced in the Central and Eastern European
countries can operate satisfactorily on unleaded gasoline. |
| Title |
"Prevention of Valve-Seat
Recession in European Markets" |
| Author |
J.S. McArragher, L.J. Clarke and H.
Paesler |
| Institution |
Shell |
| Pages |
9 plus Tables & Figures |
| Date |
May 1993 |
| Abstract |
This report reviews both published
and in house data on valve seat recession to examine the effect
of engine operating conditions, the minimum lead content necessary
to prevent valve seat recession and the effectiveness of alternative
additives. |
| Title |
"Effects of Using Unleaded
and Low Lead Gasoline, and Non Lead Additives on Agricultural
Engines Designed For Leaded Gasoline" |
| Author |
Agriculture, US Environmental Protection
Agency & US Department of |
| Pages |
80 |
| Date |
April 1987 |
| Abstract |
This report assesses the need for lead
or other additives to protect valves in engines with a heavy duty
cycle and which had been designed for use with leaded gasoline. |
| Title |
"Durability test of
catalyst vehicles run on unleaded gasoline with sodium additive." |
| Author |
Laveskog, Anders |
| Institution |
Motortestcenter |
| Pages |
10 plus Appendices |
| Date |
June 1992 |
| Abstract |
This report reviews the experience
with the use of a sodium based additive, designed to prevent valve
seat recession with unleaded fuel. The particular focus is the
impact on catalyst deterioration over extended mileage. |
| Title |
"An Engine's Definition
of Unleaded Gasoline" |
| Author |
Doelling, Ralph P. |
| Institution |
Society of Automotive Engineers |
| Pages |
8 |
| Date |
October 26-29, 1971 |
| Abstract |
An engine program designed to investigate
the effect of varying gasoline lead levels upon changes in hydrocarbon
exhaust emissions levels resulting from combustion chamber deposits
and valve recession was extended to very low lead levels. The
results of this program, define the amount of lead a fuel may
contain before lead deposit effects on emissions are observed
and valve recession problems are eliminated as falling between
0.04-0.07 gm/gal. |
| Title |
"A Review of Worldwide
Approaches to the Use of Additives to prevent Exhaust Valve Seat
Recession" |
| Author |
Russell, M.W. Vincent and T.J. |
| Institution |
Associated Octel Company Limited |
| Pages |
17 plus Figures and Tables |
| Date |
January 1998 |
| Abstract |
This report reviews the problem of
valve seat recession and the use of fuel additives to control
it. |
| Older Vehicle Emissions Control Options |
| Title |
Issue Paper: Older
Gasoline Fueled Vehicles in Developing Countries or in Economies
in Transition – Their Importance and the Policy Options For Addressing
Them |
| Author |
Walsh, Michael P. |
| Institution |
United Nations Environment Program/Organization
For Economic Cooperation and Development |
| Date |
1999 |
| Abstract |
Older vehicles are a disproportionate
source of vehicle related air pollution in many countries. This
study reviews the potential of many strategies, such as Inspection
and Maintenance, Mandatory Scrappage, Retrofit, Fuel Conversion,
etc., to reduce this excess pollution. |